One parenting style can nearly double a child’s risk of developing symptoms of mental health problems, according to new research.

Children exposed to “hostile” parenting, characterized by over-controlling behavior and harsh physical or psychological discipline, have nearly twice the risk of their peers of developing mental health issues by the time they’re 9 years old, researchers from the University of Cambridge and the University College of Dublin found after studying more than 7,500 children from infancy through age 9. They detailed their findings in a new study published in the medical journal Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences.

“We are not for a moment suggesting that parents should not set firm boundaries for their children’s behavior, but it is difficult to justify frequent harsh discipline, given the implications for mental health,” said Dr. Ioannis Katsantonis, a doctoral researcher at the University of Cambridge and an author of the study.

Parenting styles are deeply connected to a child’s development and can either be a risk or a protective factor for a child’s mental health.

Hostile parenting, according to the researchers, can involve shouting at children regularly, routine physical punishment, isolating children when they misbehave, damaging their self-esteem or punishing children depending on the parent’s mood.

Warm and engaged parenting can reduce the chance of mental health issues in a child, while “over-involved/protective, harsh and disciplinary parenting” is a predictor of poor mental health symptoms, the study’s authors noted. Those symptoms can range from anxiety and social withdrawal to impulsive or aggressive behavior and hyperactivity.

A growing childhood mental health crisis

Anxiety and depression diagnoses have been on the rise in children in recent years, according to data from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Anxiety diagnoses for children rose 29% between 2016 and 2020, and depression increased 27%.

Meanwhile, data showed a significant decrease in parents’ and caregivers’ mental and emotional well-being.

“Our findings underline the importance of doing everything possible to ensure that parents are supported to give their children a warm and positive upbringing, especially if wider circumstances put those children at risk of poor mental health outcomes,” said Dr. Jennifer Symonds, associate professor at University College Dublin and an author of the parenting styles study.

Parenting style doesn’t completely determine mental health outcomes; those can be shaped by gender, physical health and socioeconomic status, researchers found.

“The fact that one in 10 children (in the study) were in the high-risk category for mental health problems is a concern and we ought to be aware of the part parenting may play in that,” Katsantonis said.

What’s a parenting style?

Someone’s parenting style isn’t the same as that person’s parenting practices.

A parenting practice is a specific goal-oriented behavior, like insisting on good table manners.

Parenting styles have to do with the parent’s built-in emotional characteristics – such as how sensitive they are to their child’s needs – which set the tone for how the parent interacts with their child.

In the world of psychology, there are different names and classifications of parenting styles, including permissive, authoritative, authoritarian or neglectful.

This study grouped parenting styles into three categories: – warm: displaying affection and attentive to a child’s needs – consistent: setting clear expectations and rules – hostile: over-controlling parental behaviors and harsh physical or psychological discipline

Researchers found hostile parenting raised a child’s chances of being both high-risk and mild-risk for mental health issues. Researchers found consistent parenting had a limited protective role for children in the mild-risk category, but were surprised to find warm parenting didn’t increase the likelihood of children falling into the low risk group. This could be due to the way other factors, like gender or socioeconomic status, influence mental health outcomes.

Girls were more likely to be in the high-risk category than boys. Children from wealthier backgrounds were less likely to show symptoms of mental health issues, while children with one parent were more likely to be high-risk for issues.

Researchers recommended more intervention and support not just for children, but for new parents as well.

“Appropriate support could be something as simple as giving new parents clear, up-to-date information about how best to manage young children’s behavior in different situations,” said Katsantonis. “There is clearly a danger that parenting style can exacerbate mental health risks. This is something we can easily take steps to address.”

Need help?

The National Parent Helpline is a free resource that provides emotional support for parents from a trained advocate. It’s available at 1-855-427-2736.

The Children’s Bureau also keeps a list of parenting resources, including advice and links to community organizations, available here.